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FINAL DRAFT
Waterworks Essay
Final Draft
Ryan Moore
Medical Morality in the Gilded Age
The Gilded Age was a time of radical change in America, right on the cusp of the
Industrial Revolution. Americans living in urban regions had no choice but to adapt to the
changes that came with obstacles such as rapid urban expansion, violent gang activity in major
cities, and substandard hygiene. E.L. Doctorow’s novel,
The Waterworks
, is a book that depicts
an accurate historical view of New York in this time period. In this book, the character of Dr.
Sartorius serves two purposes: Sartorius shines a light on some of the beneficial advancements in
Gilded Age medicine, in order to gain the reader’s trust; then, he provokes the issue of medical
morality in his twisted experiments using deceased streetorphan children to prolong the lives of
rich old men. The role of Dr. Sartorius in
The Waterworks
brings up a very relevant question: at
what point does the pursuit of medicinal knowledge become immoral? Well, based on simple
laws of ethics, one can easily deduce that the pursuit of medical knowledge becomes immoral if
the patients, or people close to the patients, experience physical or emotional trauma as a direct
result of your practice. What truly matters in deciding medical morality is the intention of the
doctor: did the doctor intend to cause harm, or was the doctor doing the best they could with the
knowledge available in that time period? Some doctors in the Gilded Age adhered to some sort
of ethical code, while some did not. Both ends of this moral spectrum deserve to be examined,
and the morality of the actions of Dr. Sartorius deserve the same scrutiny.
For every medical advancement made during the Gilded Age, an outdated (and often
terrifying) medical procedure would be eliminated from the average doctor’s arsenal of “normal
medical procedures”. Many people know of the classic “horror movie” medical procedures, such
as electroshock therapy, or the use of leeches for bloodletting. These practices might not have
been common but they were most certainly used at one time. Those living in the Gilded Age saw
the brief rise and fall of medical practices far more concerning than the aforementioned, such as
the lobotomy, which was thought to “cure” homosexuality (4). In 1898, Heroin
(diacetylmorphine) was manufactured and distributed by pharmaceutical companies to treat
common symptoms like coughs, colds, and pain (4). “Radium therapy”, or the consumption of
radioactive radiuminfused water, was thought to cure a number of illnesses such as arthritis and
rheumatism, but actually led to far more serious health complications (4). Another periodic table
element, mercury, was used as a treatment for syphilis until the early 20th century, until it was
discovered that mercury led to very painful symptoms, including stomach ulcers and sometimes
death (4).
Doctors that performed these bizarre procedures did not always have ill intent; a great
deal of these doctors simply did not know any better because they were going about their
business based on the knowledge that was available to them in that time period. Dr. Sartorius is
an example of a doctor operating without any regard for morals or ethical medicine; he had the
potential to launch Gilded Age medicine years into the future, but instead he conducted his
experiments in secret, knowing that he would be in trouble if he got caught. The actions of Dr.
Sartorius are best described in this chilling quote from Doctorow’s novel: “I saw him transfuse
blood from one living being to another. I saw him with a hypodermic tube inject cellular matter
into deadened brains. I saw first one, then another, of the orphan children begin to age, like
leaves turning yellow.” (
Waterworks
pg. 198).
In contrast to the horrors of precontemporary medicine, the Gilded Age was also a time
of great growth in safe, benevolent medical practices. The most groundbreaking and wellknown
change in medicine during this time was the creation of the condom for males around the turn of
1840 (6). During a time period when the concepts of abortion and “free love” were in direct
insubordination of the “word of God”, this invention was a topic of great debate, and caused
quite a stir. The invention of the condom was thought to promote sinful activity in the eyes of the
predominantlyCatholic community of the Gilded Age, and were often condemned by local
church preachers. However, the condom played a key role in drastically reducing the number of
cases of venereal disease in sexually active people. The condom serves as a prime example of a
harmless, victimless medical invention, quite contrary to the medical proceedings of Dr.
Sartorius.
Medical schools were also in desperate need of reformation due to substandard hygiene
conditions and illinformed doctors. In 1910, Abraham Flexner did a study on American medical
colleges which led to the closing of various shoddy medical schools; this sparked great changes
in the medical curriculum as well as the teaching methods they used (1). The use of ether as a
surgical anesthetic was introduced in 1846 which allowed surgeons to conduct their work
without any screaming, thrashing, or unbearable pain being inflicted on their patients (2). This
was particularly necessary during a time period when a crushed limb or a bullet wound could
easily lead to a fatal systemic infection. Amputations before the introduction of ether were
obviously very gruesome. As for Dr. Sartorius, his procedures were not all as deranged as his
experiments with the orphan children; he actually created a brilliant machine used for measuring
brain activity, an invention far ahead of his time. “Afterward he showed me what he said was a
graphic representation of the electric impulsings of my brain...a fairly regular figuration similar
to the path of the sine and cosine in mathematics. This remarkable picturing device was of his
own invention.” (
Waterworks
pg. 196)
After examining the foundation of medical reforms of the Gilded Age, one can easily
make an educated guess as to where Dr. Sartorius falls on the moral spectrum. At what point
does the pursuit of medicinal knowledge become immoral? The facts of the matter are clear: Dr.
Sartorius harvested the life force of orphan children in order to prolong the lives of rich men, in
exchange for financial gain. Martin Pemberton described the nightmarish blood transfusions in
an earlier quote, but Sartorius himself goes on to describe the zombielike state that became of
the rich benefactors as well: “...They did not agree to give themselves to my care in a uniform
condition, you understand. The illnesses varied, the ages, the prognoses. Though all the illnesses
were fatal. Yet I had them conformed to a degree of existence I could lower or raise by my
application, as you quicken or dampen a gas flame with a turn of the wrist. I reached only this
early stage, that I could keep them biomotive, that is, where they did not stop breathing, to the
extent that I did not overendow them with selfsustaining energies. This, of course, was not what
they had dreamed of for themselves...” (
Waterworks
pg. 215)
Sartorius was obviously indifferent about the fates of those he experimented with. Martin
comments on the absence of empathy in Sartorius, saying that, “...everything was Sartorius’s
triumph. Though he scrupulously fulfilled his part of the contract, he was entirely without care or
concern for his patients except as they were the objects of his thought. What he warranted was
only his scientific attention. But this was all!” (
Waterworks
pg. 200) Furthermore, when Martin
was questioned by Dr. Hamilton on his observations of Dr. Sartorius conducting his experiments,
Martin described how the orphan children were used, dead or alive. “Children died in their
place.” “Never by his hand.” “What?” “Not from any of his procedures. Either he took them after
an accidental death...or, if he worked with living...donors, as he did subsequently...those who
died, died of fear. Of an undetectable...infirmity in their spirits of the...survival instinct.”
(
Waterworks
pg. 233) The pursuit of medical knowledge becomes immoral if your practice
causes physical or emotional trauma to your patients or people close to your patients, and Dr.
Sartorius certainly did a good enough job of causing trauma to his victims as well as the people
in his community.
This time period was monumental in the progress of American civilization. Doctors have
always been held to the highest esteem for their indispensible skills, and rightly so; on the other
hand, there have always been doctors that were either mentally unstable or just unaware of the
“proper” way of doing things. Dr. Sartorius fell into the category of the former, despite the
benevolent advances he made in blood transfusion and recording brain activity. Doctorow
suggests that Sartorius is a medical genius who invented various surgical techniques, but is only
concerned with the pursuit of medical knowledge, nothing else. Sartorius pays no mind to any
pain or suffering that he inflicts on his patients. The facts are plain and simple: this character was
conducting grisly experiments using orphan children and tried to keep it a secret. If Dr. Sartorius
wanted to, he could have conducted his research the right way, and he could have applied his
genius to a much more nobler goal. Instead, he fell under the persuasion of money and potential
glory, and lost his sense of humanity in the process. The pursuit of medical knowledge should
come to a halt if there is even a small chance of significant trauma being inflicted on the patient
or the patient’s loved ones, and Dr. Sartorius ignored the golden rule of medicine: do not inflict
harm on others.
Endnotes and Works Cited
“Medical Morality in the Progressive Era”
1. Mintz, Steven. “Reform Movements of the Progressive Era”.
“https://www.gilderlehrman.org/historybyera/politicsreform/resources/reformmoveme
ntsprogressiveera”
2. Hansen, Bert. “Medical Advancements in Nineteenth Century America”.
“http://www.gilderlehrman.org/historybyera/firstagereform/essays/medicaladvances
nineteenthcenturyamerica”
3. Pernick, Martin S. (1985).
A Calculus of Suffering: Pain, Professionalism, and
Anesthesia in NineteenthCentury America
(Columbia University Press, 1985).
4. Howard, Jacquelin. “
Bizarre Medical Treatments: 17 'Remedies' That Didn't Turn Out So
Well”. (2012)
“http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/09/24/bizarremedicaltreatmentsremedies_n_191
0346.html”
5. Starr, Paul. (1982)
The Social Transformation of American Medicine
(Online ebook)
6. History of Condoms
“http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_condoms”
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