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Deep Learning for Regression
By: The Lazy Programmer
https://lazyprogrammer.me
https://twitter.com/lazy_scientist
https://facebook.com/lazyprogrammer.me
Welcome to this exclusive special report on deep learning for regression. Why did I make this?
I’ve gotten quite a few requests recently for (a) examples using neural networks for regression
rather than classification, and (b) examples using time series.
This tutorial includes both!
We will examine the dataset, and then attempt 3 different approaches to the problem: linear
regression, feedforward neural networks, and recurrent neural networks.

Data Description
Linear Regression
Feedforward Neural Network
Recurrent Neural Network (GRU/LSTM)
Discussion

Data Description
The data is from a popular dataset called the airline passengers dataset. ​The dataset consists
of monthly totals of airline passengers from January 1949 to December 1960. There are 144
data points in total. The number in the dataset is given in thousands, although we will normalize
our data anyway.
This is a plot of the data (using plain integers on the x-axis):

As you can see, there are multiple trends here.
The first is that there is an overall increase in number of passengers over time.
The second is that there is a periodic pattern, most likely corresponding to summer vacations.
Note that the amplitude of the cycle increases over time.

Because these patterns are obvious, one could model the series as:

yˆ (t) = b + at + A(t)cos(α + ωt)
A(t) = γ t + δ
And that would be another example of “feature engineering”.
But we won’t.
You can download the data yourself from
https://datamarket.com/data/set/22u3/international-airline-passengers-monthly-totals-in-thousan
ds-jan-49-dec-60​.
I’ve also included it in the repo:
https://github.com/lazyprogrammer/machine_learning_examples
Folder: airline
To load the data, we will use Pandas:
import pandas as pd
If you look at the CSV, you’ll notice that there are 3 lines at the bottom that are irrelevant. You
could delete these manually, but Pandas’ read_csv function includes parameters that allow us
to skip footer rows. It is only supported by the “Python” engine, so we will need to specify that as
well (the default engine is “C”, which is faster).
df = pd.read_csv('international-airline-passengers.csv',
engine='python', skipfooter=3)
The column names are a little crazy so I’ve renamed them:
df.columns = ['month', 'num_passengers']
And then you can plot the data like so:
plt.plot(df.num_passengers)
plt.show()

To ensure that we train and test our model in a fair way, we are going to split the data down the
middle in time into train and test sets.
Typically, we want our models to be trained on all the possible inputs it could see, so that it has
a target to learn from in every “area” of the input space.
Ex. If we trained on X=1..10 and then tried to make a prediction for X=100, that would be a
major extrapolation. We would most likely be wrong.
On the other hand, if we had training data for X=1,2,3,4,5, and then tried to make a prediction
for X=2.5, we could probably be more confident in the answer, since it is close to our training
data.
With the airline passenger data, this could potentially be problematic.
Notice how at the halfway point, things start to really pick up. The amplitude of the periodic
wave increases by a lot, as does the average count.
However, splitting the data like this is the most “fair” because in real life, we want to predict the
future. If it’s currently October, we can’t get the results for December and create a model that
accurately predicts November.

Linear Regression
Our first attempt at modeling the data will make use of linear regression.
Let us be clear about what the inputs and outputs (targets) are.
I want to be able to use past passenger counts to predict future passenger counts.
In particular, I want to predict the passenger count x(t) using x(t-1), x(t-2), etc.
I will not use the month or year, as that would allow me to learn the trends I described in the
previous section.
Using linear regression, this model is:

x(t) = w0 + w1 x(t − 1) + w2 x(t − 2) + w3 x(t − 3)
For predicting x(t) with 3 past data points.
We have a special name for such a model. It is called the “autoregressive” (AR) model.
It’s “regressive” because we are doing regression, and it’s “auto” because we are using the
series to predict itself.
As I always try to teach my students, it doesn’t matter much “what” the data is. We just want to
mold it into our usual problem:
An NxD matrix of inputs called X and and N-length vector called Y.
Suppose we are given the data c(1), c(2), …, c(10). I’m using the letter “c” here to represent the
“count”, to differentiate between X, which is my data matrix into the linear regression model.
My training data would then become:

X1

X2

X3

Y

c(1)

c(2)

c(3)

c(4)

c(2)

c(3)

c(4)

c(5)

c(3)

c(4)

c(5)

c(6)

c(4)

c(5)

c(6)

c(7)

c(5)

c(6)

c(7)

c(8)

c(6)

c(7)

c(8)

c(9)

c(7)

c(8)

c(9)

c(10)

Notice that X is of size 7x3. There can only be 7 data points because the first one we can
predict that makes use of 3 inputs is c(4), and the last one we can predict that exists is c(10).
We can put this into code as follows:
series = df.num_passengers.as_matrix()
N = len(series)
n = N - D
X = np.zeros((n, D))
for d in xrange(D):
X[:,d] = series[d:d+n]
Y = series[D:D+n]
In the above code, D is the number of past data points we want to use to make the prediction. In
the final code, we will loop through various settings of D.
Split the data into train and test sets:
Xtrain = X[:n/2]
Ytrain = Y[:n/2]
Xtest = X[n/2:]
Ytest = Y[n/2:]
Train a model and print the train and test scores (the R​2​, since this is regression):
model = LinearRegression()
model.fit(Xtrain, Ytrain)
print "train score:", model.score(Xtrain, Ytrain)
print "test score:", model.score(Xtest, Ytest)
Note that we could have implemented linear regression ourselves - both the fit and predict
functions would only be 1 line each. We are just saving ourselves a little trouble by using Sci-Kit
Learn.

Finally, we want to plot the target data along with our model predictions.
plt.plot(series)
train_series = np.empty(n)
train_series[:n/2] = model.predict(Xtrain)
train_series[n/2:] = np.nan
# prepend d nan's since the train series is only of size N - D
plt.plot(np.concatenate([np.full(d, np.nan), train_series]))
test_series = np.empty(n)
test_series[:n/2] = np.nan
test_series[n/2:] = model.predict(Xtest)
plt.plot(np.concatenate([np.full(d, np.nan), test_series]))
plt.show()
Lining up the predictions is a little complicated. The full series is of size N, where N = n + D.
Using np.nan means nothing shows up in the plot for that point.
The first d points are nan’s since they don’t have predictions. The next n/2 points are train
predictions. For the test series these should all be nan’s. The final n/2 points are test
predictions. For the train series these should all be nan’s. This ensures that the train and test
predictions will show up in different colors.
All the plots should look something like this:

For the final setting of D=7, we achieve:
train score: 0.850075979734
test score: 0.769876100967
Not bad! The simple linear regression model manages to successfully extrapolate the trend in
the latter half of the data.
The full code can be found in lr.py.






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